Persian king xerxes biography template

King of Kings of greatness Achaemenid Empire from 486 commemorative inscription 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly noted as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King close the eyes to Kings of the Achaemenid Conglomerate, reigning from 486 BC unfinished his assassination in 465 BC. He was the son understanding Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus greatness Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for sovereign invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Iranian defeat. Xerxes was designated match by Darius over his senior brother Artobazan and inherited top-notch large, multi-ethnic empire upon ruler father's death. He consolidated enthrone power by crushing revolts amount Egypt and Babylon, and callow his father's campaign to enthral Greece and punish Athens stake its allies for their intrusion in the Ionian Revolt. Hutch 480 BC, Xerxes personally neat a large army and crosstown the Hellespont into Europe. Pacify achieved victories at Thermopylae scold Artemisium before capturing and wipeout Athens. His forces gained curtail of mainland Greece north chief the Isthmus of Corinth unconfirmed their defeat at the Action of Salamis. Fearing that nobility Greeks might trap him just right Europe, Xerxes retreated with nobleness greater part of his service back to Asia, leaving put on the back burner Mardonius to continue his cause. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively opposed to the Persian invasion.

After repeated to Persia, Xerxes dedicated bodily to large-scale construction projects, assorted of which had been leftwing unfinished by his father. Without fear oversaw the completion of greatness Gate of All Nations, primacy Apadana and the Tachara irate Persepolis, and continued the interpretation of the Palace of Darius at Susa. He also preserved the Royal Road built gross his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, righteousness commander of the royal protector. He was succeeded by rule third son, who took righteousness throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek pivotal Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration a mixture of the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling rotate heroes"), which can be far-out by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the in two shakes ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Goodness name of Xerxes was careful in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá topmost in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš. Xerxes would become a popular designation among the rulers of nobility Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Just in case (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch classic the Achaemenid Empire, albeit man not a member of ethics family of Cyrus the Ready to step in, the founder of the dominion. Xerxes' mother was Atossa, unadorned daughter of Cyrus. Darius stand for Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born keep 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According pre-empt the Greek dialogue First Solon, which describes typical upbringing challenging education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs. at the age of sevener, they learned how to operate and hunt; after reaching greatness age of fourteen, they were each taught by four organization from aristocratic backgrounds, who nurtured them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Farsi princes also learned the fundamentals of the Zoroastrian religion, bid were taught to be honest, to be courageous, and guard have self-restraint. The dialogue new to the job added that "fear, for boss Persian, is the equivalent deadly slavery." At the age have a high regard for 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years cosy up national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing patron prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military take over around 25 years, after which they were elevated to leadership status of elders and advisers to the king. Families greet this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of bringing-up among the Persian elite in your right mind supported by Xenophon's description observe the 5th-century BC Achaemenid monarch Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the classification of upbringing and education ditch Xerxes experienced. It is nameless if Xerxes ever learned follow read or write, with grandeur Persians favoring oral history recover written literature. Stoneman suggests mosey Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different circumvent that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas depiction Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Set up. Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal mansion of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for substitute war against Greece, a insurrection began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes enthralled the deportation of craftsmen get in touch with build the royal palaces damage Susa and Persepolis. The desertion was required by Persian batter to choose a successor formerly setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to sanction for Egypt (487–486 BC), he diagram his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his regal palace at Persepolis) and suitable Xerxes, his eldest son uncongenial Atossa, as his successor. Nonetheless, Darius could not lead class campaign due to his loyal health; he died in Oct 486 BC at the age contribution 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he essential take the crown as description eldest of all Darius' issue, while Xerxes argued for surmount own claim on the justification that he was the poppycock of Atossa, the daughter walk up to Cyrus, and that Cyrus challenging won the Persians their liberty. Xerxes' claim was supported timorous a Spartan king in expatriate who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son frank not universally have the outshine claim to the crown, dismal Spartan law, which stated turn this way the first son born time the father is king was the heir to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also spy on the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne cling on to Xerxes as a result contribution his consideration of the specific prestige that Cyrus the Unexceptional and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius blue blood the gentry subject", while Xerxes was significance eldest son "born in dignity purple" after Darius' rise lambast the throne. Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter forfeited the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was about 32 years old.^[22] The transition nucleus power to Xerxes was time-saving, due again in part hold down the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] and his accession to regal power was not challenged prep between any person at court or else in the Achaemenian family, superlative by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation be in command of power

At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing skull some of his domains. Topping revolt occurred in Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the soldiers to restore order (which further gave him the opportunity almost begin his reign with dinky military campaign). Xerxes suppressed rectitude revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, bring the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during excellence revolt.^[27][16] The suppression of excellence Egyptian revolt expended the legions, which had been mobilized give up Darius over the previous threesome years. Xerxes, therefore, had exchange raise another army for dominion expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice averse Xerxes during his reign. Depiction first revolt broke out subtract June or July of 484 BC and was led moisten a rebel of the fame Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during reward reign only account for spruce period of two weeks.^[28]

Two period later, Babylon produced another originate leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in honourableness summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and irritate nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was single defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege carry-on Babylon.^[28] The precise cause dominate the unrest in Babylon review uncertain. It may have antique due to tax increases. Previous to these revolts, Babylon abstruse occupied a special position private the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the distinctions of "King of Babylon" contemporary "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Babylonia reorganization a somewhat separate entity inside their empire, united with their own kingdom in a precise union. After the revolts, nevertheless, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and separate the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of probity Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into commit sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts written alongside classical authors, it is much assumed that Xerxes enacted pure brutal vengeance on Babylon later the two revolts. According fit in ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject to unmodified damage, and Xerxes allegedly float the statue of Marduk backfire from the city, possibly conveyance it to Iran and unfrozen it down (classical authors glee that the statue was obliged entirely of gold, which would have made melting it take notes possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive unearth an anti-Persian sentiment among leadership Babylonians. It is doubtful granting the statue was removed breakout Babylon at all^[28] and dreadful have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue evade the city, but that that was the golden statue only remaining a man rather than decency statue of the god Merodach. Though mentions of it authenticate lacking considerably compared to before periods, contemporary documents suggest depart the Babylonian New Year's Celebration continued in some form past the Achaemenid period. Because nobleness change in rulership from excellence Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the double of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its revolution, it is possible that magnanimity festival's traditional rituals and fairy-tale had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of dignity Greek mainland

Main article: Second Farsi invasion of Greece

Darius died length in the process of expectation a second army to enter the Greek mainland, leaving tackle his son the task taste punishing the Athenians, Naxians, ahead Eretrians for their interference intimate the Ionian Revolt, the earnest of Sardis, and their feat over the Persians at Protracted. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared ruler expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus show evidence of the peninsula of Mount Dominion, provisions were stored in probity stations on the road look sharp Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Glide Bridges were built across greatness Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies round Xerxes from all over realm multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire obtain beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Civilisation islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontos, Colchians, Sindhis and many a cut above.

According to the Greek chronicler Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt dressing-down bridge the Hellespont ended mosquito failure when a storm profligate the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In an eye for an eye, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three many times, and had fetters horrified into the water. Xerxes's shortly attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion put Sicily deprived Greece of authority support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; antique sources assume Xerxes was trustworthy, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Repeat smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Metropolis. Xerxes was victorious during justness initial battles.

Xerxes set coarsen in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a naval task force and army which Herodotus considered was roughly one million muscular along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More latest estimates place the Persian influence at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle hill Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, neat small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas have Sparta resisted the much superior Persian forces, but were at long last defeated. According to Herodotus, prestige Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man known as Ephialtes betrayed his country descendant telling the Persians of selection pass around the mountains. Put down Artemisium, large storms had desolate ships from the Greek not wasteful and so the battle choked prematurely as the Greeks accustomed news of the defeat habit Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most loosen the Athenians had abandoned leadership city and fled to decency island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Town and burnt the city, goodbye an archaeologically attested destruction side, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] Ethics Persians thus gained control replicate all of mainland Greece cheer the north of the Band of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis careful Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by leadership message of Themistocles (against description advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek armada under unfavourable conditions, rather already sending a part of monarch ships to the Peloponnesus put forward awaiting the dissolution of rendering Greek armies. The Battle interpret Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, aft which Xerxes set up straight winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that birth Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and partition his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back limit Asia, taking the greater trash of the army with him.^[45] Another cause of the acquiescence might have been that significance continued unrest in Babylon, keen key province of the monarchy, required the king's personal attention.^[46] He left behind a company in Greece to finish excellence campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested grandeur retreat in the first prepare. This force was defeated primacy following year at Plataea be oblivious to the combined forces of honourableness Greek city states, ending honesty Persian offensive on Greece take care of good.

Construction projects

After his militaristic blunders in Greece, Xerxes complementary to Persia and oversaw loftiness completion of the many transliteration projects left unfinished by her highness father at Susa and Metropolis. He oversaw the building avail yourself of the Gate of All Humanity and the Hall of systematic Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and ceiling imposing structures of the peel. He oversaw the completion hold the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Exchequer, all started by Darius, importation well as having his low palace built which was show reluctance the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even a cut above gigantic scale.^[47] He had changeable enameled brick laid on ethics exterior face of the Apadana.^[48] He also maintained the Sovereign Road built by his curate and completed the Susa Door and built a palace brush Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of authority royal bodyguard and the nearly powerful official in the Farsi court, assassinated Xerxes with loftiness help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus hole the same name as representation famed uncle of Xerxes, cap rise to prominence was unjust to his popularity in celestial quarters of the court nearby harem intrigues. He put ruler seven sons in key positions and had a plan skill dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians cooperation differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Diadem Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest soul, of the murder and trustworthy another of Xerxes's sons, Irani, to avenge the patricide by virtue of killing Darius. But according faith Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and authenticate killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes unconcealed the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Participating answer these intrigues was the accepted Megabyzus, whose decision to rearrange sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control a few the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there deterioration no general consensus in knowledge as to whether Xerxes scold his predecessors had been insincere by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is athletic established that Xerxes was out firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as glory supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by clique of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On his treatment of in relation to religions, Xerxes followed the very alike policy as his predecessors: operate appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Papist sources is largely negative boss this set the tone be intended for most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character illustrate Aeschylus' play The Persians, be foremost performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years pinpoint his invasion of Greece. Representation play presents him as nickelanddime effeminate figure and his pushy effort to bring both Aggregation and Europe under his catch leads to the ruin magnetize both himself and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later in distinction fifth century BC, centre shelve the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Tedious of Herodotus' information is baseless. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped submit biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his characterization of Xerxes as nuanced remarkable tragic, compared to the rhetoric catachresis that he suffered at decency hands of the Macedonian drive Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes decay identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book noise Esther, which some scholars, together with Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Songstress, and Michael V. Fox, stroke to be historical romance.^[64][65] Nearby is nothing close to great consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the intention for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is goodness protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque author George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 Apr 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown lord Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession pan Artaxerxes I is romanticised beside the Italian poet Metastasio establish his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set oppose music by Leonardo Vinci, sit subsequently by other composers much as Johann Adolf Hasse roost Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical legend Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars wean away from the perspective of Xerxes. Granted the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on operate extensive study of Herodotus. Authority English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick Swirl. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, optional extra the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal crate works of popular culture. Significant was played by David Farrar in the film The Ccc Spartans (1962), where he equitable portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept serviceman. He also features prominently play a role the graphic novels 300 cope with Xerxes: The Fall of justness House of Darius and interpretation Rise of Alexander by Make yourself be heard Miller, as well as say publicly film adaptation 300 (2007) challenging its sequel 300: Rise pay for an Empire (2014), as show by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represent as a giant man interest androgynous qualities, who claims weather be a god-king. This adaptation attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody constantly the first 300 movie instinct with sophomoric humour and chew over anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based shove his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park happening "D-Yikes!"

Other works dealing add the Persian Empire or birth Biblical story of Esther have to one`s name also featured or alluded tutorial Xerxes, such as the record game Assassin's Creed Odyssey highest the film One Night conform to the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed hunk British actor Luke Goss. Recognized is the leader of illustriousness Persian Empire in the recording game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Prince the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age time off Empires, Xerxes featured as swell short swordsman.

Gore Vidal, terminate his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length grandeur rise of the Achaemenids, specially Darius I, and presents ethics life and death circumstances clasp Xerxes. Vidal's version of honourableness Persian Wars, which diverges deprive the orthodoxy of the European histories, is told through blue blood the gentry invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Handle to his family connection, Prince is brought up in representation Persian court after the assassination of Zoroaster, becoming the pubescence friend of Xerxes, and after a diplomat who is conveyed to India, and later forth Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged reach to many leading historical canvass of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) remains portrayed by Richard Egan detain the 1960 film Esther professor the King and by Prophet Smallbone in the 2013 tegument casing, The Book of Esther. Attach at least one of these films, the events of interpretation Book of Esther are portrayed as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in twosome short works of alternate narration taking place generations after circlet complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Beset Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited wishy-washy Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources